Evaluating Science: The Monkey's Voyage

The Monkey's Voyage: How Improbable Journeys Shaped the History of Life

by Alan de Queiroz

Alan de Queiroz gives an extensive history of biogeography, the study of why plants and animals live where they do and not in other places. He also provides interesting perspectives on the kinds of assumptions scientists make about their fields and how those assumptions may be challenged over time. When the theory of continental drift became more accepted, biogeographical studies became constrained by the idea that all geographical differences were caused by the separation of land masses through continental drift. de Queiroz provides extensive evidence for the surprising idea that a few random long distance journeys by living things dramatically shaped the biogeographical landscape we have today.

Obviously, the continents had moved--nobody was claiming that the theory of plate tectonics was wrong--and obviously, they had carried species with them, but somehow, these facts did not explain nearly as much about the modern living world as we had thought.

One aspect I liked was how he showed the way scientists (really, anyone) tend to tackle any problem with the tools they know, the tools they have, or the tools that are new. Molecular modeling and dating (using changes in nucleotide sequences over time to determine how long ago a new species appears) and PCR were two tools that changes biogeographical studies. Whether those tools were used in the best manner or make the most comprehensive arguments is an interesting discussion to address before assuming results based on those tools are trustworthy. Those kinds of questions are important to ask. For some people, it's important just to realize and acknowledge that those questions exist. It is very easy to skip that step. (The alternate is also important: being able to read some eccentric website calling into question a standard scientific practice and recognize it for the fringe attack it is, rather than a valid argument.)

Building on those ideas, the author also discussed the value of scientific studies based on their methodology. Even within studies using the same models, some studies can be universally acknowledged superior or inferior, but there's a lot of room for gray area. de Quiroz explores many studies, identifying how the same method or tool can be used well or poorly, depending on the initial assumptions of the researchers. I found de Queiroz's detailed analyses informative, for anyone interested in science. The kinds of questions he asks can be translated to any other scientific discipline.

Throughout the book, the author interviews and introduces a large number of different scientists. They are real people with quirks, biases, and families. He even includes pictures of them. There are also lots of instances where scientists with very particular areas of interest talk with each other and make connections each alone would be unable to discern; that's real science in action. 

This book contains a fairly heavy dose of scientific analysis, but it is fascinating if you can wade through it all. Following the trail of studies and their value was one of my favorite biology major projects. It was fun to spend a little time thinking deeply about how research is done and whether it was valid.

This would be a fantastic geography and earth studies book for an interested and ambitious late high school student. While the study descriptions are sometimes dense, they are generally understandable for anyone willing to concentrate. You could also glean a lot from the book even if you can't follow every argument. That being said, I'm not sure most high school students would be willing to put in the effort.

I have received nothing in exchange for this post. Links to Bookshop are affiliate links.

Continental Drift and Weather: Ending in Ice

Ending in Ice: The Revolutionary Idea and Tragic Expedition of Alfred Wegener
by Roger M. McCoy

This book explores the life and legacy of Alfred Wegener, the scientist who first provided extensive multi-disciplinary evidence for the movement of continents. He was mistaken in many of his arguments, but his ideas are now recognized more formally in the theory of plate tectonics.

The first chapter of the book is a brief biography of Wegener. Then there are a couple of chapters outlining his revolutionary ideas about the movement of continents. The author shares many ideas here about how new scientific ideas are accepted (or not) and why, a topic that is continued in the last few chapters of the book.

Then there are eight chapters detailing Wegner's expedition to Greenland and his disappearance. These chapters are a thorough and fascinating window into Arctic (and Antarctic) expeditions between the World Wars. Dramatic advances in mechanical engineering and aeronautics have since eliminated many of the most dangerous aspects of arctic research.

The last two chapters discuss Wegener's contributions to science from his research as a meteorologist and for geology and earth sciences through his ideas about continental drift. The last chapter covers a lot of technical information on plate tectonics in a readable way.

One of the aspects of the proofs of the continental drift theory the author pointed out was the transition from science by an individual (Galileo, Newton, Curie) to that of vast organizations and governments. The evidence that led to the understanding of continents moving over time was only possible because governments invested in extensive ocean floor mapping during and after World War II. No single individual could have undertaken such a task. 

The author explored reasons why Wegener's theories were initially refuted. One of the main problems was that his ideas about how continents moved were recognized as incredibly weak. Scientists therefore, erroneously as we now know, discounted his entire theory of continental drift. This is a good reminder to us all that one point of weak evidence does not negate an overall idea. It is best to consider all the evidence, setting aside that which is weak, but giving full consideration to that which remains.

I appreciate books that describe the history of scientific ideas in a way that shows how scientists communicate and assess each other's work. Scientists are people, people who have disagreements and make mistakes. Science is also a discipline in which people offer best guesses based on the current information. Over time and with the accumulation of new information, theories coalesce. This is an important lesson in a world that expects answers at the swipe of a touchscreen or the posing of a question aloud to a computer.

This book would be an excellent choice for a supplemental reading book on North American geography. It combines a relatively recent understanding of plate tectonics, an interesting story about climate research in Greenland, and a biography of a fascinating scientist. It does feel a little like a book inside a book rather than a coherent whole, but that's a small complaint.

I have received nothing in exchange for this post. I borrowed the book from my library. Links to Amazon are affiliate links.

An Earth Science Tour of the United States: The Earth in Turmoil

The Earth in Turmoil: Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and their Impact on Humankind

by Kerry Sieh and Simon LeVay

The Earth in Turmoil covers plate tectonics and its ramifications for earthquakes and volcanoes in a readable but thorough way. The events and locations explored are all in the United States, mainly the West coast, Basin and Range, and Hawai'i, but also chapters dedicated to Yellowstone, the New Madrid Fault, and the Northeast. They always remind readers of other places in the world with similar physical conditions and phenomena.

Through the course of the book, the authors explore the history of geology and earth science, describing theories proposed, experiments conducted, and papers from a variety of scientists around the world. They provide excellent diagrams, maps, and drawings to illustrate geological principles like the recycling of the lithosphere and how volcanoes are produced by a subducting slab, to name a few from the first two chapters.

This solemn, silent, sailless sea--this lonely tenant of the loneliest spot on Earth--is little graced with the picturesque. [Mark Twain in Roughing It, describing Mono Lake, quoted in The Earth in Turmoil]

All these descriptions and explanations are woven into the chapters through stories from people who experienced earthquakes or survived volcanic eruptions, stories which make the events come alive for the reader in a way the scientific descriptions alone never could. The authors also show how first person accounts and other primary source documents can allow the dedicated scientist to develop a more comprehensive picture of earthquakes or other events, even when modern scientific instruments were not around to measure anything at the time. 

This book was published in 1998 and takes into account new research and events right up until their print deadline. A lot of time has passed since then in human terms, so there are some chapters for which I'd recommend searching recent events online to see if there's new information.

The book is out of print, but seems reasonably easy to find used. I'm probably going to assign it as our earth studies reading at some point in high school. I've been looking for one to cover plate tectonics and this one seems to be the best mix of stories of real people and essential geological information without being an actual (expensive and dense) college textbook.

One thing to note, if you have a sensitive student, the purpose of the book is to develop the relationship between knowledge of the earth's forces that results in earthquakes and volcanic eruptions and how humans use the land and spaces affected by those forces. Someone anxious about the chances of massive eruptions or earthquakes may find some of the risks outlined upsetting. In fact, the authors often comment on the psychological ramifications of experiencing extended times of frequent earthquake activity.

On the other hand, the authors sometimes explore how those risks translate into public policy, laws, and insurance coverage, which can be useful and fascinating information for anyone interested in politics, environmental law, or urban development. Given the current conditions as I write this in the midst of the Covid-19 pandemic, the discussions of the balance between scientific forecasts of risks and impacts of those forecasts on businesses and daily lives (especially in the chapter on Mammoth Lakes and Long Valley) were fascinating and relevant.

Sam Walker, who owns a brewery and a restaurant and has been chairman of the chamber of commerce, told us that relations between the townspeople and the USGS scientists had improved greatly in recent years. A lot of the misunderstanding, he told us, was caused by inaccurate reporting of what the USGS people had said. If the USGS said that an eruption was a possibility, some TV station or other would announce that lava was flowing down the street. 

The last chapter explores these ideas of risk assessment and policy in the most detail. 

I have received nothing in exchange for this post. All links to Amazon and Bookshop are affiliate links.